The famous Orion, the hunter, constellation is easy to find in the night sky because of the three stars in his belt, and the bright stars Betelgeuse and Rigel near his shoulder and foot. Orion is shown facing the constellation Taurus, the Bull, which hints that Orion might be based on the Sumerian hero Gilgamesh or the Greek hero Heracles, who both fought bulls. Orion’s many stories tell of his skill as a brave hunter, but he died because he was too proud. In one story, Orion bragged that he could kill any animal on Earth, which either made the Earth angry, or Artemis, the goddess of hunting, was upset. To punish Orion, the Earth sent a scorpion to sting him, and he died from the sting. Because of this, Orion and the scorpion constellations are on opposite sides of the sky, making it look like Orion is running away as the scorpion rises in the east.

According to the Greek myth, after Perseus defeated Medusa by cutting off her head, Pegasus came out of her neck and flew away. Some stories say that Perseus was actually riding Pegasus when he saved Andromeda, but usually, Pegasus is linked to the hero Bellerophon. Zeus also used Pegasus to carry his thunderbolts. Even though we only see the front half of Pegasus in the night sky, it is the seventh-largest constellation in the northern sky. Long ago, the constellation was made up of a “square of Pegasus,” which was a group of four bright stars. However, now one of those stars, near Pegasus' belly, has been given to the nearby constellation Andromeda and is called Alpha Andromedae, so only three stars remain in the well-known square.

When Heracles went temporarily mad because of the goddess Hera, he accidentally killed his wife and children. To make up for these terrible actions, he was given 12 very hard tasks to complete. The first task was to kill the Nemean lion, a scary creature with a tough hide that liked to attack the people living nearby. Heracles managed to defeat the lion by hugging it tightly and squeezing it to death. The constellation Leo represents this fierce lion. It has six stars in an arc shape that shows the lion's front body and head, ready to pounce. The brightest star in this arc is called Regulus, which means “little king.”

The Phoenix, located near the constellation Eridanus, refers to the mythical, multicolored bird that is able to rise from the ashes of its predecessor.  Ankaa, the Arabic name of the constellation’s largest star, means phoenix.

Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, has seven stars that form its back and tail. You might know it better as the Big Dipper because its stars look like a ladle or a drinking gourd. Four stars make the cup part, and three stars make the handle.
The story behind the name Ursa Major is more complicated. In a book called Metamorphosis, the writer Ovid tells a story about a huntress named Callisto. She promised to stay loyal to the goddess Artemis, but Zeus tricked her by pretending to be Artemis. Callisto ended up having a son named Arcas. When Zeus’ wife Hera found out, she turned Callisto into a bear. Later, Arcas, not knowing the bear was his mother, tried to hunt her. To stop this tragedy, Zeus turned Callisto into the constellation Ursa Major and Arcas into another constellation called Boötes, the Herdsman.

Andromeda was the daughter of Queen Cassiopeia and King Cepheus. Her parents chained her to a rock in the sea as a sacrifice to the sea monster Cetus. Things seemed dire for Andromeda until Perseus, a hero who had just defeated the gorgon Medusa, flew down from the sky and saved her.

The constellation Andromeda used to share its main star, Alpha Andromedae (also called Alpheratz), with the nearby constellation Pegasus. The Andromeda Galaxy, which is part of the Andromeda constellation, is 2.5 million light-years away from Earth and is the farthest object in space that we can see without a telescope.

Sailors couldn't predict the weather, winds or tides, but they did learn how to navigate. Before this, they would stay within eyesight of the coast, and therefore, know where they were based upon the land formations such as cliffs or mountains. There are no landmarks in the open ocean, so sailors learned to use the stars, including our sun, and Earth's magnetic field to navigate, and that meant they could cross oceans.

Early compasses were notoriously unreliable. They would sometimes lose their magnetic charge, and the ship's motion on the water sometimes made it difficult to get a steady reading. Compasses also point at magnetic north, not true north, so as they sailed around, magnetic north changed in relation to true north. Though many were working on a better compass, for the time being, using Earth's magnetic field was only going to help so much. The North Star, however, was always located at true north.

The North Star, also known as Polaris, is located directly over the North Pole, appearing fixed in the night sky. Because of Earth's spin, all of the other stars appear to travel in circular arcs around the North Star. It serves as a reference point that allowed sailors to find their way. To know their location, sailors needed to know their latitude and longitude. Sailors only had to measure the angle of elevation of the North Star and they could figure out their latitude on the map because the angle of elevation of the North Star is equal to one's latitude on a map. Determining longitude was a more difficult task requiring an extremely precise clock, but that problem was soon solved, too.

This time-lapse photo shows the other stars rotating around the North Star during a typical northern hemisphere night.

Many took what they assumed was the easy way, by sea. The trips typically began anywhere along the Atlantic Coast with ships sailing southward around Cape Horn at the tip of South America and back up to San Francisco. It was along these seagoing journeys that many first experienced life in the tropics and learned about Latin or Catholic cultures. Malcolm J. Rohrbough noted in his history of the era, Days of Gold, The California Gold Rush and the American Nation, "The voyage to California provided most seagoing 49ers with their first contact with the tropics, new cultures and new values … The revelations included flying fish, swarms of birds, strange aromas, and brilliant sunsets and sunrises."

Others chose to "cross the isthmus" by sailing only as far south as Panama, where they then made a three-day trip by mule and canoe across land—the isthmus of Panama—to the Pacific side, where they boarded another ship for the trip north to San Francisco. Those who traveled this route were treated to even more exotic sights, including snakes, howling monkeys and parrots, and types of fruits and other foods they had never experienced before.

Still others sailed around Florida and through the Gulf of Mexico to Texas, where they disembarked and made their way across Mexico's harsh deserts and into California. One group that included James McClatchy, who made that 4,000-mile journey, and said he and his traveling companions survived by eating everything from toads to berries to rattlesnakes to mules as they walked for 26 days before reaching San Diego.

The sea voyages continued year-round without regard to season and could last for months, depending on the winds and the weather.

The 2,200-mile overland trips had to be timed properly, with most typically beginning in mid-May in places on "the edge of the prairies outside St. Joseph or Independence, Missouri," Rohrbough wrote.

Many of these wagon trains were made up of people from the same area, traveling together for safety and comfort, but there were just as many who signed on with professionals who would agree to guide them across the Plains for fees of about $200 each.

Some fell for advertisements for gold-digging devices or machines that they tried to transport by wagon or pack mule across the nation, and the result was inevitable as they realized how overloaded they were. "The 49ers littered the California Trail with discarded food supplies and heavy gold-mining equipment, often fancy gold-washing machines," Rohrbough wrote. "They began to throw things away at the beginning of the journey, littering the trail for a thousand miles to and past Fort Laramie."

No overland trip was easy, but just getting to California did not mean the end of their journey, especially for those who came by ship, because the gold fields were still far inland near Placerville, a great distance from the port of San Francisco where the ships docked.

It was very common for a ship's crew to abandoned their ships as soon as they were docked and join the crowds going to the gold fields. San Francisco Bay was crowded with abandoned ships and once it was discovered ships could make their way up the Sacramento River from the San Francisco Bay to Sacramento, the Sacramento riverfront also became awash in abandoned ships that started being used for many other purposes.

In the book The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, siblings, Bruno and Gretel, along with their parents, move from Berlin and to a house in Poland. This new house is right next to Auschwitz, one of the biggest concentration camps from the Holocaust. It's hard to miss Auschwitz because it's full of starving people in "striped pajamas" with Star of David armbands, and they are always being pushed around and shouted at by soldiers. When Bruno asks Gretel what "Out-With" means, she answers, "Out with the people who lived here before us, I expect."

They believe "Out-With" is just the name of their house and not the concentration camp next door. Even though they are very close to the horrors of the Holocaust, their privileged life as the children of Nazis keeps them in a bubble. Bruno and Gretel call the camp "Out-With" instead of Auschwitz, which shows they don't really understand what's happening. Bruno even thinks he's still in Germany until Shmuel tells him the truth.

Not only does this answer shows how clueless they are about their surroundings, it also shows the reality of what is happening. The Nazis are trying to eliminate the Jews from the world, which makes the name "Out-With" a fitting description of what is happening at the concentration camp, even if Gretel and Bruno don’t realize it.

1. Al Capone lobbied to get dating on milk so consumers would know if the milk was fresh or not before purchasing.
2. Al Capone was born in Chicago.
3. Al Capone lived with his mother his whole life.
4. As a teen, Al Capone spent hours in front of a mirror trying to learn to imitate a puff adder.
5. Al Capone taught his son, Sonny, to be a mobster gang boss just like him.

      

1.  Gennifer Choldenko (author of Al Capone Does My Shirts and Al Capone Shines My Shoes) and the world-famous gangster Al Capone share:

A.  a birthday in January
B.  the childhood nickname "Snot-Nose"
C.  a love of diamond pinkie rings
D.  a brother named Henry

2.  You knew Al Capone wanted to get rid of you when:

A.  He rented an apartment near your place.
B.  He sent you a note with one bullet hole in the upper right corner.
C.  His wife, Mae, gave you one yellow rose.
D.  He sent you to the store for a box of raisins.

3.  During Al Capone's many prison stays he was written up for:

A.  Having too many pairs of underwear.
B.  Keeping rolls of money in the carved out handle of his tennis racquet.
C.  Making his bed too often.
D.  All of the above.

Position the snare at head height and tie off the end to a tree, a stake in the ground, or a log that the animal can only drag a short distance as the noose tightens. Make snares from cord, fishing line, or wire if available. It helps to place broken branches or brush on either side of the path to nudge the animal through the path with the snare.

Birds can be much easier to trap than mammals and are therefore among the first targets for a meal.

The Ojibwa Bird Pole is placed out in the open where a bird with naturally land upon it. To make it, follow these steps:

1. Sharpen both ends of a 6-foot pole and drill a small hole near one end. Drive the other end into the ground until it is secure.
2. Cut a 6-inch-long stick that will loosely fit into the hole. Tie a rock to a thin cord and pass the cord through the hole in the pole, then make a slip noose that drapes over the perch.
3. Tie an overhand knot in the cord in back of the slip noose and place the stick against the hole. Tension should hold it in position. When a bird flies down and perches, it will displace the stick, the rock will fall, and its feet will be caught as the loop quickly slides through the hole.
   

This trap works by setting a trigger that snatches game into the air as it strains against the noose. It’s good for rabbits and game as large as deer.

Deadfalls use rocks or logs to squash prey and are typically baited, but they also work along trails or outside burrows when a passing animal or bird brushes against the trigger.

Make the walls of the funnel trap with piled-up stones or tightly spaced sticks driven solidly into the river or lakebed. Close the entrance to the trap, roil the water, then either spear the fish or net them. A net can be made  made by tying a shirt or other cloth between two stout poles. These work because fish swim along the shore in shallow water to feed.

In 1793, Philadelphia faced a terrible outbreak of disease—yellow fever. By July, people in the city noticed many flies and mosquitoes around the docks, but they didn't understand that the mosquitoes were transmitting the disease. Yellow fever came from people who had fled from the Caribbean. In just one outbreak, 5,000 people—about 1/10th of the residents—died. Nearly every family was affected. Many people left the city because they were afraid of getting sick. Those who stayed were mostly poor and had nowhere else to go. A few stayed because they felt they needed to help their city and its trapped residents.

In a letter to Thomas Mann Randolph on September 2, 1793, Thomas Jefferson mentioned that a dangerous fever had started in the dirty docks of Philadelphia, causing alarm amongst the residents. Dr. Benjamin Rush, a well-known doctor in Philadelphia at that time, tried a strong treatment called the “Ten-and-Ten.” Some doctors debated how well Rush’s treatment worked, and this argument was discussed in the city’s newspapers. A new group led by Mayor Clarkson worked to fix up the best hospital, Bush Hill, and the patients began to improve. Dr. Deveze from France volunteered to be the full-time doctor there. He did not agree with Rush’s treatment. At first, there was some hesitation about hiring a French doctor because it might seem like a criticism of American doctors, especially Dr. Rush. Deveze’s treatment was careful and gentle. Even though more and more evidence showed that Deveze’s method was helping patients stay alive, it still faced a great deal of criticism. Benjamin Rush criticized Deveze’s mild methods, even though he did not have real proof to support his arguments.

No one knows exactly how many people in Philadelphia died from Yellow Fever in 1793, but it was clear that the city would never be the same. The city made efforts to keep markets and streets clean and improved laws requiring homeowners to keep their properties clean. The biggest change was in the water supply. Philadelphia got its first water system (the first in the United States), which provided cleaner and better-tasting water. The new system also had enough pressure to clean the streets and flush out sewers, making life easier and encouraging people to bathe more often. Everyone, even those who had fled the city, saw themselves as survivors. They were left with emotional and physical scars, and they knew one thing for sure: when the hot and humid weather returned next summer, Yellow Fever might come back to their homes.

Wampum beads were arranged and strung together in intricate patterns and designs that typically served as a visual memory keeper recording important messages, agreements, and historical events. These beautiful creations came to be known as wampum belts in English, though they typically were not worn in the same way we think of belts today.

Arguably the most famous wampum belt is the Hiawatha belt made to tell the story of the creation of the Haudenosaunee nation (also known as the Iroquois Confederacy or just the five nations). The Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk people warred for a very long time. When they decided to join together in peace, the Hiawatha wampum belt was created to record the event. 

The box on the far left stands for the Mohawk who were the first to join, then the Oneida. The central figure is a white pine, the tree of peace, where the warring nations buried their weapons. It symbolizes the Onondaga. Next is the Cayuga, and then the Seneca. Note that they are all joined together. This was a reminder to maintain the peace.

The Wolf Treaty belt represents the alliance of the Seven Nations (an alliance of seven Native communities in what is now Canada) and the English. The figures in the center represent King George I and a Native person joining hands in peace. The wolves were there to protect the peace path. Note the seven dark lines by each wolf. These purple lines represented the Seven Nations.

In 1890, this was written about the belt: "One wampum, now owned by Margaret Cook, the aged aunt of Running Deer, represents the treaty of George I with the Seven Nations. The king and the head chief are represented with joined hands, while on each side is a dog, watchful of danger, and the emblem is supposed to be the pledge: 'We will live together or die together. We promise this as long as water runs, skies do shine, and night brings rest.'"


You can find photos and stories of more wampum belts at the Onondaga Nation website: https://www.onondaganation.org/culture/wampum/

The division of jobs was based on a philosophy of life, a religious belief. In general, the men hunted for wild game and gathered fish. The women worked in the fields.

It is often assumed by many commentators that the life of the Native man was one of leisure, with the bulk of the heavy work done by the woman. The man was responsible for hunting, trapping, fishing, clearing trees, building the wigwam or long house, making the canoe, carving the household cooking and eating items, and instructing the young boys. Perhaps most importantly, he was also responsible for ensuring the safety of his family, clan, and band.

The women gathered water and wood. They prepared and cooked meals, picked all types of berries and nuts. They gathered lily roots, wild rice, onions, chives, wild garlic, mushrooms, mint, swamp cabbage among many of the wild plants. They gathered herbs for medicines and garnishes. Additionally, women cared for, raised, and educated the children. They tended to births and deaths. They prepared hides, made clothes and snowshoes, set up and tore down shelters, and after engaging in all these physical tasks, women were also the primary decision makers.  Women were involved in all major decisions involving their community. [Girouard, 2017]